South America

This page contains most countries of South America :
Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile.

For the other countries of America see : Central America/Caribbean or North America.

Remember that many instruments are played all over the continent (not just in the countries I have put them here), and because they are locally made, you may find quite a lot of variety in shape and even in the number of strings.

For lots of information, especially about the different tunings of all Central and South American instruments, see Pacoweb.

The cuatro is the national instrument of Venezuela, and of course it is so called because it has 4 strings. Other names are : guitarra pequeña, guitarrita, guitarilla.
There are similar instruments with five (cinco) and six (seis) strings (see further on).
The cuatro is also used in part of Colombia.

The cuatro is made like a small guitar, with a flat back. The neck has a flat peg head, with usually 2x2 tuning machines.

The bridge is rectangular and glued to the front. The top of the front (above the top half of the soundhole) has inlay of different (darker) wood, often in a different pattern. Also the fingerboard (flush with the front) has often inlay of different woods.

The 4 nylon strings are tuned like a guitar : a d' f#' b .

Playing is strumming chords for accompaniment.

See for some information LeLuthier and for the history : Cuatro (both in Spanish).

The bandola is a kind of cuatro, but with a pear shaped body. It is a melodic instrument. It comes in two different types : the bandola llanera ("from the plains") and the bandola oriental. The last one can be further divided in the bandola central and the bandola guayanese. These bandolas are also used in some areas of Colombia.

The bandola llanera (with 4 single strings) is the most popular. It is made like a guitar, with a flat back, and the top half of the body almost parallel to the neck. The top (above half the round soundhole) has often a layer of darker veneer (like the cuatro).

The fingerboard is slightly raised above the front, and has metal frets. The flat tuning head has 2x2 tuning machines. The 4 nylon strings run to a glued bridge on the front.

The 4 nylon strings are often tuned : a d' a' e".

For detailed information see La Bandola (in Spanish) .

The bandola oriental is often quite similar to the bandola llanera. However the number of strings is different : it has 4 double strings (like a mandolin). This type of instrument is further divided in a bandola central and a bandola guayanese - called after the different regions where they are played. These two usually have metal strings, while in the pure "oriental" (the east) they prefer nylon strings.

In some regions slightly different body versions exist, like the example : with a square body top and an smaller extra soundhole, and with the 4 double courses made of nylon. The entire instrument is painted brown.

The tuning of the bandola oriental is often like a mandolin : gg d'd' a'a' e"e" , but many different tunings are in use.
The tuning of the bandola central is usually : ee' aa dd' gg' (like a guitar) and of the bandola guayanese : gg' dd' a'a' e"e" (like a mandolin).

Playing is the style of Jorope, a kind of rhythmic form in 6/8, which is different in the three different regions.

Note :
In Trinidad and Tobago a similar bandola with 4 double courses is used, which is called a bandol.

In Colombia exists an instrument which is also called a bandola (see further on), but which is a type of bandurria, with 6x 2 strings. In Venezuela this instrument is called bandola andina.

Besides the cuatro and bandola there is another type of guitar, with different numbers of strings - the first number (in Spanish name) gives the total number of strings, and the second number gives the number of courses : cinco cuatro / cinco / seis cinco /seis / cinco y medio

These instruments are all made like a normal guitar, with a flat back. However the back and the front sticks a few mm over the side. The neck has a fingerboard, slightly higher than the front, with metal frets.
The flat tuning head has friction pegs from behind, and an extra strip of veneer between the pegs. The nylon strings run to a square bridge (glued to the front), which is as wide as the soundboard at that place.

The arrangement and number of strings gives the instrument its name:
a cuatro has 4 strings in 4 single courses
a cinco cuatro has 5 strings in 4 courses (the 4th double)
a cinco has 5 strings in 5 single courses
a seis cinco has 6 strings in 5 courses (the 4th double)
a seis has 6 strings
a cinco y medio has 5 strings plus a short extra string from the top of the body
a cuatro y medio has 4 strings plus a short extra string
an octavo has 8 strings in 4 double courses

These instruments are popular in the area of Llana, but I am told that the "y medio" type is now rather out of fashion (see under). For lots of information about Venezuelan cuatros and family see Cuatro (in Spanish).

The example instrument is a seis cinco : the 4th course is double (in octaves).
Tuning could be : e aA d' f# b

A cinco y medio is a slightly smaller type of guitar with a different number of strings : a cinco with five nylon strings, plus a short one ("medio" = half) from the heel of the neck.

The instrument itself is made like the cinco and the seis (see above), with the bridge over the full width of the body. The difference in these folk instruments is principaly the size; the instruments are : the sexto (six string) biggest (not on Pacoweb pages); the cinco (smaller than sexto); the medio cinco (smaller than cinco) and the cuatros.

This kind of instrument is rarely played anymore, and mainly only in a little region of Lara State, called El Tocuyo. And not even all the time, but mainly during the "Tamunangue", folkloristic music for a traditional religious celebration (see Venaventours).

The cinco y medio and cuatro y medio are not essential for Tamunangue. There are 2 sizes for the cinco y medio and cuatro y medio : the Sanare ("little town") style (in Pacoweb pages) and the El Tocuyo style. The Sanare style has no double strings and the normal tuning is like an extended cuatro : 5 strings+half. The El Tocuyo cinco y medio has also 5 strings, but with only 4 courses; the lowest is an octaved pair (it is called a requinto on Paco web).

Tuning of the Sanara style cinco y medio could be : e a d f'# b' (e'),
and of the El Tocuyo style cinco y medio : a'a d f'# b' (e').

The above information is provided by Luthier. The example instrument is a cinco y medio in El Tocuyo style, and so has one double course. As this instrument is now quite rare, it had to be specially made for me.

In Brazil the classical guitar is very popular, but as they speak Portuguese in Brazil, they call it violão, like in Portugal. The name guitarra is also used, but mainly for electric guitars. For the viola see further on.

The violão is used for choros music, with bossa novas, etc. Famous players are /were Baden Powel, (Antonio) Carlos Jobim, João Gilberto, etc.

To make it easier to use deeper bass notes, the addition of a (low) 7th string became popular and now most Brazilian brands of instrument factories (Rozinni, Giannini, etc.) make 7-string instruments, known as violão de sete cordas ("guitar with seven strings").

The 7th string is usually tuned to B', making the tuning : B' E A d g b e'.

The viola is the steelstrung guitar of Brazil, similar to the violas in Portugal. It is slightly smaller than a classical guitar, and has 5 double metal courses. It is also called viola de dez cordes ("with ten strings") or viola sertaneja (see under), but the instrument often can be the same.

The instrument is made like a slightly smaller and often slender guitar (bit old fashioned), with a flat back. The fingerboard is slightly raised above the front and has a flat tuning head, with 5 tuning machines on both sides of the open pegbox.
The 10 metal strings (in 5 courses) run to a flat bridge glued to the front.

There exist dozens of tunings for the viola, but often the tuning is open, for easy playing, like : aA d'D f'f# aa d'd'.

For detailed information see Viola or Correa (both in Portuguese).

The most famous solo player on viola is Roberto Corrêa, who also wrote some courses for it (in Portuguese).

The viola sertaneja is another type of viola, although there may be no difference in appearance. It has (like all violas) 5 double metal courses and is slightly smaller than a guitar.

The viola sertaneja is used in the Sertaneja music - a kind of Brazilian Country&Western Music, played in the North East of Brazil.

There exist dozens of tunings for the viola, but often the tuning is open, for easy playing, like : aA d'D f'f# aa d'd'.

In the area of Olinda (NE Brazil, just north of Recife) this viola is played by "cantoria" : a duo of singers, who each in turn improvise a song, accompanying themselves on a viola. They use 4 single strings and the lowest course triple, in a normal guitar tuning. They more or less only strum on one chord (A-maj).

This man in Olinda offered to sell me his Delvecchio viola and I declined.... (see my Delvecchio guitar in the steelguitar section). His viola was a Dinamico (kind of dobro-style guitar); his mate used a normal looking guitar with stringholder. Both instruments were made by the factory of DelVecchio. Some Dinamico violas have more soundholes round the bridge : we saw up to 10.

In the province of Mato Grosso (in South West Brazil) this remarkable instrument has developed. It is there promoted as "national instrument", although it is unknown anywhere else in Brazil.

The viola de cocho is carved from one single piece of (light)wood (the body, neck and tuning head), and hollowed out. A thin piece of wood is glued to the front, as is a similar but darker wood fingerboard (flush with the front) and a veneer on the peghead, which bends slightly backwards. The instrument is left plain : not varnished at all - so it looks unfinished. The top of the body used to be more rounded, but the latest models are seen to be with a sharper curve.

At most 3, but usually only 2 frets are used (the 2nd and 3th). The frets are made out of animal guts, tied-on, but also glued with wax. It has 5 friction pegs from behind. The 5 (now nylon) strings run to a square bridge glued to the front.

The tuning is either g d e a d' , or : g c e a d' .

The sound is indeed what you expect : soft and dull and not very pleasing....

See for more information VioladeCocho en Viola-de-Cocho (in Portuguese).

From the CD of viola music by Roberto Correa.       Both the viola of mr. Roberto Correa and the example instrument are made by Mr. Manoel Severino de Moraes in Cuiaba, one of the few makers of the viola de cocho, who was already more than 70 years old. Pity I did not have time to visit him when I was in Cuiaba.

Although basically the same string length as a ukulele, because of the wide guitar shape the Brazilian cavaquinho looks much bigger. The name is usually shortened to "cavaco". It is also available in a banjo-model.

The instrument is made and looks like a small (spanish) guitar, only with 4 metal strings. The tuning is usually d' g' b' d''.

It is used in all kinds of Brazilian music, either by strumming or picking.

a cavaco in banjo-model, very popular around Rio de Janeiro, to play pop samba     (picture from eBay)

This is just a normal size mandolin, but with the Portuguese name bandolim.

The typical Brazilian shape resembles much the Portuguese Guitarra.

The Colombian tiple (pronounced "tea-play") looks like a normal classical guitar (maybe slightly smaller), but with 12 metal strings, divided in 4 courses of 3 strings.

The tuning is like a guitar, but without real bass strings: d'dd' g'gg' bbb e'e'e'.

There is another, similar looking instrument, also with 4 courses, but with all strings in unison, which is called tiple requinto. Some have only 10 strings, with the tuning : d'd' g'g'g' b'b'b' e'e'. Often it has also 12 strings, with all courses triple and in unision.           Left : a more typical Colombian looking tiple, from BoliviaMall.com

The example instrument is probably made in Chile, as it looks more decorated - see also Chile).

bandola

The Colombian bandola is in fact a bandurria (see Spain). It is similar to the bandola andina from Venezuela.

The bandola is made like a guitar, with a flat back and the body shaped like a pear.

It has 6 metal courses, which run to a guitar-like bridge glued to the front. Some have 12 strings (in double courses) like the Spanish bandurria, but most of the Colombian bandolas have 16 strings, with the 4 top courses triple.
Note that in the Philippines exist a bandurria with 14 strings.

The tuning is like a Spanish bandurria in 5-5-5-5-5 : f#f# bb e'e'e' a'a'a' d''d''d'' g''g''g''.

For more information see Bandola (in Spanish) or Harpguitars.
See for more plucked instruments of Colombia : Coleccion (in Spanish).

Note : there is a similar named instrument (with 4 strings) in Venezuela, which is (with the Venezuelan cuatro) also used in some areas of Colombia.

detail of the bridge

The bandolin from Ecuador has a body shaped much like a bandola or mandolin, but it has 5 courses of triple metal strings, in a guitar-tuning.

The bandolin is made like a guitar, with a flat back. The fingerboard is slightly raised above the front, and has metal frets. The long flat tuning head has 7 tuning machines on the right side and 8 tuning machines on the left side of the open pegbox.

The 15 metal strings (in triple unison courses, with only the two lowest ones with a low octave string in the middle) run over a loose bridge to a metal stringholder on the edge of the body. This makes it different from the bandurria from Peru, which has a similar body shape, but with the strings fixed to a guitar-like bridge.

The tuning is guitar-like : e"e'e" a"a'a" d"d"d" fis" fis" fis" b"b"b".

The most well-known instrument of South America is the charango, which can be found in most countries along the Andes : Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

The charango is usually made from one block of wood (body plus a large part of the neck), hollowed out. The rest of the neck with the flat pegbox is glued to it. The fingerboard is usually slightly raised to the front. Although originally with friction pegs from behind, nowadays tuning machines are used on both sides of the open tuning head.

The charango has 10 (nowadays) nylon strings fixed to a small glued-on bridge. Older ones may have metal strings.

It uses a special tuning : the 4 lower courses are tuned like a guitar, but the top course is a repeat of the third : 5-4-5-7 : g'g' c'c' e''e' a'a' e''e''.

Playing is usually strumming with the fingers in a strong rhythmic pattern, often interspaced with blocking the sound with the palm of the hand.

Different types of body from Peruvian charangos : - a calabas, - an armadillo, - carved wood

bandurria

In Peru (and Bolivia) they use a kind of mandolin, which is called bandurria. Although its shape resembles somewhat the Spanish bandurria (with 6 double strings), it has in fact only 4 courses. Usually the courses are with double metal strings, but often with 3, 4 or even 5 strings per course, resulting in 8, 12, 16 or even 20 strings in total.

The body is constructed like a guitar, with a flat back. The strings are fastened to a guitar-like bridge, glued to the front.

The tuning is often guitar-like : d"d'd"d" g'gg'g' b'b'b'b' e"e"e"e", or many other tunings.

Playing is strumming like on the charango.

left : picture from friend in Peru right : picture from Japanese website

This is the name sometimes used for a charango with the body made from the back of a small armadillo.

These charangos are often more pear-shaped. The older ones may also have friction pegs (from the back) and metal strings, with the 1st and 3th course sometimes triple.

The hualaycho is a small charango, sometimes also spelled walaycho, and sometimes also called maulincho.

In fact only the body is smaller, the string length is only slightly less than the normal charango. The sound though is much sharper.

Normal tuning : d'd' g'g' b"b' e"e" b"b" or higher.

ronrroco

The ronrroco (notice the two RR's) is a large charango, which is only a quite recent invention.

The body (and part of the neck) of the ronrroco is always carved from one piece of wood, hollowed out. The rest of the neck with the tuning head is separate and glued to the body. The body shape of a ronrroco is not rounded, but quite square/angular, especially the bottom half. The top of the front is made of a darker coloured wood.

It has 10 nylon strings, basically tuned like a charango, but with the first and third course dropped an octave, so lower than the second course, and the lower courses in octaves.

Normal tuning would be : a'a c"c' e'e a'a' e'e' .

Note that a slightly smaller ronrroco (but bigger than the normal charango) exist and is called charangon or bariton charango. They often look like a large charango, and are tuned like : c'c' f'f' a"a' d"d" a"a".

chillador

The chillador is a charango made like a small guitar, so with a (flat) back and separate sides (so not carved from one piece of wood).

Other names are : charango de caja, charango anzaldeño.

ranka charango

This is a quite crummy looking charango, with a high bended back, 6 high wooden frets on a fingerboard, flush with the front. The front and back go a few millimeters over the sides. The instrument is left unvarnished ("rustic").

It has 10 nylon strings in 5 courses, and an extra "diablito" string from a peg at the right side of the neck.

It is mainly used in the area of Mizque in Cochabamba, and is made in different sizes (string length from 32 to 77 cm).

Tuning : d'd' a'a' g'g' c"c" g" (g"').

The high back of the ranka charango

charanguito

The charanguito is a recently developed hybrid instrument combining a guitar with a charango.
Some have one body and two necks side by side (like the western combination of guitar plus mandolin or guitar plus bass guitar).
Others have on one side of the body a guitar neck and one the other side a charango neck (back to back).
Or even on both sides of the body (so it looks like one long neck with a body in the middle).

There are several similar looking guitars like this one : in different sizes, with different number of strings and tunings, and with different names.

In general they are a crummy looking guitar, with about 5 (high) wooden frets, and a black painted fingerboard, alternating with unpainted bits between the frets.
The front and the back of the body stick a few millimeters over the deep sides.

Often there are tree-like decorations painted on the front near the bridge. Also the circles round the small soundholes are painted on. The entire instrument is left unvarnished ("rustic").

The example instrument is a hybrid : it has a short string (diablito) from a peg at the right side of the neck, near the body and it has 5 metal double courses.
The proper khonkhota is usually a 4 course instrument with a bit smaller body.

In Argentina exists an instrument which is called guitarrón, which is a normal Spanish guitar, but tuned with the (second string) b as top string, and an extra low 6th B'.

The tiple from Chile is quite similar to the tiple of Colombia, both in size and tuning. However it often has a cut out rosette in the soundhole and it is a bit more decorated than the normal quite plain classical guitar-like Colombian tiple.

The tiple has 12 metal strings in 4 triple courses and is tuned like a guitar, with no bass strings: d'dd' g'gg' bbb e'e'e'.

This is a quite rare instrument, but very interesting. It is only used in Chile, as an accompaniment by so-called "poetas populares" - rural singer/composers of popular poetry.

Although the name guitarron is similar to the huge bass guitar of Mexico, this version in Chile is a normal size guitar, but with 25 (!!) strings, and most of those are quite thin.

The guitarrón is build like a normal guitar, with a flat back, and high sides. The neck is quite wide and the tuning head has 3 slits to fit 3 rows of 7 tuning machines. On both sides of the neck a bit of wood is fixed to the side of the body, where another 2x2 tuning machines are fitted for the "diablito" strings. The bridge is in the shape of a half moon, with two bat-like wings extending to the top. All strings are fixed to the bridge.

The tuning is guitar-like, with 5 courses: f#" a' d'd'ddD g'g'g'gg c'c'cC e'e'e' a'a'a' g' b' The top 2 courses are triple, the 3th is 4-double, the 4th 6-double and the 5th 5-double. The diablitos are only occasionally struck. Playing is mainly arpeggio style to accompany the singing poet (usually by himself).